Inglés
arta Suarez, Amaya M. Rieiro-Díaz, David Alba, Johannes Langemeyer, Erik Gomez-Baggethun, Ibone Ametzaga-Arregi.2024. Urban resilience through green infrastructure: A framework for policy analysis applied to Madrid, Spain
Urban resilience and how to assess it have become main policy objectives in the face of accelerated climate and other global environmental change. We develop a conceptual framework and an assessment tool to analyse how green infrastructure policies contribute to urban resilience and discuss barriers and opportunities for implementation. The conceptual framework is designed to analyse how resilience is fostered through six resilience factors: diversity, self-sufficiency and autonomy, polycentric governance, social cohesion, learning and innovation, and social-ecological justice. The assessment tool consists of a resilience index composed of 30 indicators. We use the capital city of Madrid, Spain, as a case study. Our results suggest that planning policies that focus on vulnerable neighbourhoods and include mechanisms for citizen engagement are the policies that most effectively foster urban resilience. We also identified that financing and political will are major barriers for the implementation of resilience policies. We assume that the proposed framework is suitable to assess to what extent local policies foster urban resilience and suggest further testing in other cities.
Access: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204623002426
Castellano
Peña, L., Olaziregi, I., Mesa, J., Sertutxa, U., Ortega, U., Ametzaga-Arregi, I., 2022.
Comunidad vegetal y mesofauna: Eucaliptales versus robledales. En actas del 8º Congreso Forestal Español. Ed. Sociedad Española de Ciencias Forestales, Cataluña. ISBN: 978-84-941695-6-4.
Euskera
Peña, L., Olaziregi, I., Mesa, J., Sertutxa, U., Ortega, U., Ametzaga-Arregi, I., 2022.
Landare-komunitatea eta mesofauna: Eukaliptal versus hariztiak. Espainiako Basogintzako 8. Kongresuko aktetan. Ed. Baso Zientzien Espainiako Elkartea, Katalunia. ISBN: 978-84-941695-6-4
Peña, L., Olaziregi, I., Mesa, J., Sertutxa, U., Ortega, U., Ametzaga-Arregi, I., 2022.
Landare-komunitatea eta mesofauna: Eukaliptal versus hariztiak. Espainiako Basogintzako 8. Kongresuko aktetan. Ed. Baso Zientzien Espainiako Elkartea, Katalunia. ISBN: 978-84-941695-6-4
Sertutxa, U., Peña, L. eta Ametzaga-Arregi, I., 2022.
Landare- eta hegazti-aniztasuna Euskal Autonomia Erkidegoko baso eta landaketa exotikoetan. Espainiako Basogintzako 8. Kongresuko aktetan. Ed. Baso Zientzien Espainiako Elkartea, Katalunia. ISBN: 978-84-941695-6-4.
Gida praktikoa ekosistemen zerbitzuak lurralde- eta hirigintza-plan eta- programen formulazioan integratzeko.
Ekosistemen zerbitzuak identifikatzeak eta baloratzeak erraztu egiten du lurralde-kudeaketa eta lehengoratze ekologikoa orientatzea eta lehenestea, bai eta azpiegitura berdea garatzea ere; hori horrela da biodibertsitatea kontserbatzearen onurei buruzko informazioa ematen duelako eta lurra maneiatzeko edo erabiltzeko erabakietan inplikatutako edo eragindako eragileak identifikatzen dituelako.
Horregatik, gida honen helburua da E.Z. natura- eta hirigintza-baliabideak antolatzeko lurralde-plan eta -programen formulazioan sartzea erraztuko duen metodologia eskaintzea.
Naturaren onurak gizarteratzeko hezkuntza: ekosistemen zerbitzuen ikasketa-irakasketarako inplementazio didaktikoa
Ekosistemak eta horiek ematen dizkiguten onurak (ekosistemen zerbitzuak deritzena) hobeto ezagutzea eta baloratzea ezinbestekoa da naturaren inguruko erabaki zuzenak hartzeko. Haur, gazte eta helduei biodibertsitateak ematen dituen onuren inguruan ikasketa-irakasketa prozesuak aurrera eramateak, errealitatearen analisi kritikoa egiten eta erabaki arduratsuak hartzen lagun dakieke. Hala ere, ekosistemen zerbitzuen kontzeptuak azken hamarkadan maila zientifikoan zein politikoan nazioarteko berebiziko garrantzia hartu badu ere, hezkuntza arloan kontzeptu hau oraindik garatzeke dago. Horregatik, ekosistemen zerbitzuen inguruko ikasketa-irakasketa prozesuak bultzatzen laguntzeko helburuarekin, lan honetan metodologia aktiboak erabiltzen dituen interbentzio didaktiko bat aurkezten da, zeina hiru urtetan arrakastaz inplementatu den.
Onaindia, M., Madariaga, I., Palacios, I., Arana, X. (Koord.) 2015. Natura eta Ongizatea Bizkaian. Ekosistemen Zerbitzuen Ebaluazioa; ikerketa kudeaketan. Euskal Herriko Unibetsitatea (UPV/EHU). Leioa, España. 130 pp. ISBN: 978-84-9082-179-4.
Natura eta Ongizatea Bizkaian. Ekosistemen Zerbitzuen Ebaluazioa; ikerketa kudeaketan
Milurteko Ekosistemen Ebaluazioa Bizkaian proiektua Nazio Batuen “Milurteko Ekosistemen Ebaluazioa” Nazioarteko Programa Zientifikoaren esparru kontzeptuala eta metodologikoa aplikatuz egin da, eta kalitateko ezagutza zientifikoa sortu du natura-ondareari, lurralde horretako ekosistemen zerbitzuei eta haietatik eratorrita gizartearen eta ingurumenaren artean sortu diren harremanei buruz. Ikerketa honek, gainera, Europak 2020rako Biodibertsitateari buruzko Europako Estrategian zehaztutako helburuei erantzuten die; ingurunea kontserbatzeko eta leheneratzeko —zehazki, ekosistemen zerbitzuak gure bizi-aseguru gisa zaintzeko— ezagutzaren beharra azpimarratzen du estrategia horrek.
Peña, L., Olaziregi, I., Mesa, J., Sertutxa, U., Ortega, U., Ametzaga-Arregi, I., 2022.
Comunidad vegetal y mesofauna: Eucaliptales versus robledales. En actas del 8º Congreso Forestal Español. Ed. Sociedad Española de Ciencias Forestales, Cataluña. ISBN: 978-84-941695-6-4.
Sertutxa, U., Peña, L. y Ametzaga-Arregi, I., 2022.
Diversidad vegetal y de aves en bosques y plantaciones exóticas del País Vasco. En actas del 8º Congreso Forestal Español. Ed. Sociedad Española de Ciencias Forestales, Cataluña. ISBN: 978-84-941695-6-4.
Guía para la integración de los servicios de los ecosistemas en la formulación de planes y programas territoriales y urbanísticos.
La identificación y la valoración de los servicios de los ecosistemas, facilita la gestión territorial y la orientación y priorización de la restauración ecológica, así como el desarrollo de la infraestructura verde, ya que informa sobre los beneficios de la conservación de la biodiversidad e identifica a actores involucrados o afectados por las decisiones de manejo o uso de la tierra.
Por ello, el objetivo de esta guía es ofrecer una metodología que facilite la incorporación de los SE en la formulación de planes y programas territoriales, de ordenación de recursos naturales y urbanísticos.
Conocer la percepción que la sociedad tiene sobre los servicios de los ecosistemas es fundamental para desarrollar estrategias de gestión sostenible que beneficien, tanto a la sociedad como al medio ambiente.
El objetivo de este estudio es conocer la percepción que poseen los usuarios sobre la oferta y demanda de los SE en la Reserva de la Biosfera de Urdaibai (RBU), analizar sus similitudes o diferencias y determinar si la valoración de la oferta de SE percibida muestra diferencias en función del ecosistema que se analice. Para ello, se realizaron 100 encuestas en el año 2015 en distintos ecosistemas de la RBU. Los resultados indicaban que los SE más demandados fueron la conservación de la biodiversidad, el abastecimiento de agua y alimentos, la regulación de la calidad del aire y del clima y el conocimiento científico. Mientras que, la oferta estaba más dirigida hacia conservación de la biodiversidad y los servicios culturales, en general. Además, las marismas y los hábitats costeros los identificaron principalmente con la provisión de la conservación de la biodiversidad, el disfrute estético del paisaje, el recreo y la regulación hídrica, mientras que las plantaciones forestales y los bosques naturales con la regulación climática y la polinización. A pesar de la relevancia de los bosques naturales en la provisión de SE desde el punto de vista biofísico, la percepción social no mostró lo mismo, lo que indica una necesidad de incrementar la educación ambiental en este tema.
Co-creación de conocimiento para la inclusión del enfoque de servicios de los ecosistemas en la ordenación del territorio del País Vasco.
El tipo de desarrollo sostenible al que aspiramos necesita, entre otras cosas, una base de conocimiento científico, acuerdos sociales y decisiones políticas que encaminen la gestión hacia una ruta de sostenibilidad. Por lo tanto, es fundamental identificar el conocimiento necesario para la parte política y técnica, y el tipo de ciencia que se requiere desarrollar para este fin. El objetivo de este estudio es analizar el trabajo desarrollado a través de una comunidad de práctica, que contribuye a una eficiente colaboración entre la investigación y la gestión. La experiencia de trabajo transdisciplinar está basada en un enfoque holístico y colaborativo entre equipos de la universidad y equipos técnicos de la administración pública a diferentes escalas. El objeto de estudio de esta comunidad de práctica es la aplicación del enfoque de los servicios de los ecosistemas a políticas de ordenación territorial. Se analiza la co-creación de conocimiento para la aplicación de políticas orientadas a la gestión sostenible del territorio. Como resultado del trabajo colaborativo se ha incluido el enfoque basado en servicios de los ecosistemas en las Directrices de Ordenación Territorial de la Comunidad Autónoma del País Vasco, lo que tiene como consecuencia que los diferentes departamentos de la Administración, y a diferentes escalas, deberán implementar acciones para el mantenimiento de los servicios de los ecosistemas y la promoción de una infraestructura verde local. Los resultados demuestran que los puentes entre ciencia y gestión pueden ser exitosos para establecer directrices de gestión con base científica.
Interfaz ciencia-gestión-sociedad en el ámbito de la conservación: avances conceptuales y metodológicos
En la era del Antropoceno los procesos de cambio global representan uno de los mayores desafíos del siglo XXI para nuestra sociedad (Funtowicz y Ravetz 1993). Desde la Revolución Industrial, los efectos de la actividad humana han provocado perturbaciones en los sistemas naturales generando pérdida progresiva de biodiversidad y disminución de los servicios de los ecosistemas a escala mundial, que a su vez ponen en riesgo el bienestar humano (MEA 2005; Rockstrom et al. 2009; Butchart et al. 2010; Steffen et al. 2011). En este preocupante escenario, gran parte de la comunidad científica reconoce que la ciencia debería adoptar un rol clave proveyendo activamente conocimiento científico que contribuya a abordar estos desafíos y ayudar a la sociedad a transitar hacia la sostenibilidad (Lubchenco 1998; DeFries et al. 2012; Ellison 2016; Mastrángelo et al. 2019). Para avanzar en esta dirección, se necesitan urgentemente nuevos enfoques científicos que ayuden a mejorar el impacto del conocimiento científico en las políticas y la sociedad (Funtowicz y Ravetz 1993; Gibbons et al. 1994; Lubchenco 1998; Nowotny 2001; Lawrence 2015; Watson et al 2018).
Rodriguez-Loinaz, G., Onaindia,M., I., Palacios, I. 2017. Potencial Didáctico del concepto «Servicios de los Ecosistemas» X Congreso Interacional sobre Investigación en didáctica de las ciencias. Sevilla, España. 8 pp. ISBN: 2174-6486
Potencial Didáctico del concepto «Servicios de los Ecosistemas»
El concepto de “servicio de los ecosistemas” presenta una visión antropocéntrica de la
naturaleza que muestra a la misma como proveedora de servicios que contribuyen al bienestar humano. Este concepto está alcanzando gran relevancia a nivel científco y político, pero su inclusión en la
esfera educativa es muy limitada. Para analizar el potencial didáctico de este concepto, se realizaron dos jornadas dirigidas a los responsables de las Agendas 21 escolares. En ellas se presentó el concepto de “servicios de los ecosistemas”
y el marco conceptual en el cual se enmarca. Finalmente se preguntó a los asistentes sobre su potencial
didáctico y las necesidades para su transposición didáctica.
Onaindia, M., Madariaga, I., Palacios, I., Arana, X. (Koord.) 2015. Naturaleza y Bienestar en Bizkaia. Evaluación de los Servicios de los Ecosistemas; investigación aplicada a la gestión. Euskal Herriko Unibetsitatea (UPV/EHU). Leioa, España. 130 pp. ISBN: 978-84-9082-179-4.
Naturaleza y Bienestar en Bizkaia. Evaluación de los Servicios de los Ecosistemas; investigación aplicada a la gestión.
La Evaluación de los Ecosistemas del Milenio en Bizkaia está siendo pionera en la aplicación práctica del marco conceptual y metodológico de los servicios de los ecosistemas hacia una gestión territorial participativa e integradora. Tanto es así que en foros internacionales sobre la materia, la experiencia de nuestro Territorio Histórico ha sido reconocida como un ejemplo a seguir de integración entre sociedad, ciencia y gestión. Los resultados obtenidos desde esta escala local-regional que se presentan en este libro señalan esta forma de trabajo integradora y participativa, como una herramienta innovadora y útil en la que seguir apoyándose y profundizando para crear cambios significativos hacia una sociedad solidaria, y un territorio ambiental y económicamente más sostenible.
La Reserva de la Biosfera de Jaragua-Bahoruco-Enriquillo, República Dominicana. Percepción del paisaje y propuesta para un uso sostenido basado en la disponibilidad de recursos naturales.
Los resultados obtenidos sirvieron para valorar la calidad visual de las unidades y subunidades de paisaje de la reserva de la biosfera, en la elección de los factores empleados en el modelo y en la asignación de grados de valoración ambiental a cada uno de ellos. Al ser esta una encuesta personal es inevitable que la calidad del paisaje sea un concepto intuitivo y personal que viene expresado por la belleza, agrado y emoción que provoca un territorio, y está sujeta a múltiples facetas (edad, sexo, cultura, entorno). El 50% de los usuarios del territorio conocen los parques y sobre todo lo identifica con una actividad recreativa asociada con el uso del agua, ya que es donde se encuentra las playas y ríos. En cuanto a las preferencias de paisaje, los colectivos de agricultores predominantemente valoran los agrosistemas, mientras que los profesionales de otros campos, como los educadores reconocen principalmente la importancia de los sistemas naturales. Por otra parte se percibe una mala gestión en la zona, a pesar de estar bajo un status de protección y al mismo tiempo de co-manejo.
Propuesta metodológica para integrar la biodiversidad y los Lugares de Interés Geológico en la gestión de áreas protegidas: el ejemplo de la Reserva de la Biosfera de Urdaibai.
La adecuada gestión de las áreas protegidas requiere de la toma en consideración tanto de su biodiversidad como de su geodiversidad, así como de sus interrelaciones. Por ello, este trabajo tiene como objetivo proporcionar un marco metodológico para integrar las áreas biológica y/o geológicamente valiosas de estos espacios dentro de una red de diversidad natural que deberá ser tenida en cuenta dentro de sus documentos de planificación. Como caso de estudio se ha utilizado la Reserva de la Biosfera de Urdaibai (RBU), ya que su Plan de Gestión se encuentra actualmente en proceso de revisión.
Influencia de los factores socioeconómicos y culturales en la valoración de los servicios de los ecosistemas en el Cinturón Verde del Bilbao Metropolitano
En este estudio se analiza el interés social que existe por la conservación de los ecosistemas que componen el Cinturón Verde del Bilbao Metropolitano y los factores que influyen en la disposición a pagar de las personas encuestadas. Casi el 90% de la población se mostró dispuesta a colaborar en la conservación del área de estudio, siendo los factores que influyen positivamente una menor edad, un mayor nivel de estudios e ingresos, un mayor conocimiento sobre el área, un mayor comportamiento ambiental y el carácter urbano. Como conclusión se puede señalar que la población se muestra a favor de que las administraciones públicas inviertan en la conservación de este entorno natural.
Caso de estudio dentro de la Evaluación de Ecosistemas del Milenio de España: Sistemas socio-ecológicos de Bizkaia.
El proyecto de Bizkaia y el de la Evaluación de los Ecosistemas del Milenio de España (EME) están interconectados, de modo que se trabaja conjuntamente para la unificación de metodologías y criterios. Además, el proyecto de Bizkaia se incorpora a EME como un estudio de caso, con el fin de realizar una evaluación multiescalar a nivel nacional. Por ello, en el informe final de resultados de EME se incluye este capítulo sobre el proyecto de Bizkaia. Contiene los principales resultados obtenidos en la primera fase del proyecto EEMBizkaia (2008-2010), que busca conocer la interrelación existente entre los socio-ecosistemas de Bizkaia y el bienestar de su población.
Evaluación de los Servicios de los Ecosistemas como base para la gestión sostenible del territorio.
Conocer la distribución de determinados servicios de los ecosistemas es importante como base para la gestión sostenible del territorio. En este capítulo se evalúan cuatro servicios de los ecosistemas: biodiversidad, regulación del ciclo hidrológico, almacenamiento de carbono y uso recreativo; y su distribución en el territorio en la Reserva de la Biosfera de Urdaibai identificando las áreas con mayor valor para el mantenimiento de determinados servicios. Se analiza, además, el solapamiento entre la distribución de la biodiversidad y la tasa de crecimiento de la vegetación, como una medida de la producción, con el resto de servicios con el objetivo de conocer si éstas pueden ser un indicador de síntesis para la evaluación de los demás servicios. Los resultados muestran un alto solapamiento entre las áreas de gran biodiversidad y las áreas con alto valor para los servicios analizados lo que indica que la biodiversidad puede aplicarse en esta zona como un indicador de los servicios de los ecosistemas, no así la tasa de crecimiento ya que presenta un bajo solapamiento con los servicios estudiados.
Servicios de los ecosistemas del paisaje cultural de Bizkaia. Perspectiva histórica de la actividad forestal y minera.
La relación entre el suministro energético procedente de los bosques y la actividad ferrona a lo largo de la historia ha sido estrecha y crucial. En el siglo XIX se llegó a un punto de inflexión, motivado por la llegada del carbón mineral, la privatización de los montes, la siderurgia industrial, la minería intensiva y el “boom” de la población humana. Se alteró la demanda de servicios de los ecosistemas: menos biomasa energética, pero más mineral de hierro. En el siglo XX se reinventó el modelo de gestión forestal, el sector de la minería del hierro tuvo su auge y ocaso y, entre tanto, la población humana siguió creciendo, hasta quedar estabilizada a finales del milenio. El resultado final es un paisaje antrópico fuertemente intervenido, donde las repoblaciones forestales y los antiguos yacimientos de mineral de hierro marcan el rasgo estético e imprimen carácter al territorio. En términos socio-ecológicos, los servicios obtenidos de los ecosistemas de Bizkaia han procurado el bienestar de la población local y regional. En la actualidad, el sector forestal se encuentra en un momento incierto y requiere una profunda reflexión; y la actividad de extracción de hierro ya es historia y parte del patrimonio cultural.
Escenarios de futuro en los socio-ecosistemas de Bizkaia en el marco de la Evaluación de los Ecosistemas del Milenio.
En sintonía con la metodología desarrollada en el programa Evaluación de los Ecosistemas del Milenio (MA) de Naciones Unidas, en el proyecto Evaluación de los Ecosistemas del Milenio en Bizkaia (EEMBizkaia) se ha trabajado con los principales actores sociales del territorio en la creación de escenarios de futuro para Bizkaia basados en la tendencia de los servicios de los ecosistemas. De forma participativa se identificaron los principales impulsores directos e indirectos de cambio en Bizkaia y se construyeron escenarios de futuro para Bizkaia a partir de los escenarios globales desarrollados en la MA. Extrayendo los elementos más positivos de los diferentes escenarios construidos, se configuró el escenario apuesta “Bizkaia de lo local a lo global y viceversa”. A través del trabajo participativo con actores sociales, que ha permitido hacer uso del conocimiento local y especializado existente en la zona, se propusieron determinadas líneas de actuación que permiten trabajar desde el presente para caminar hacia ese futuro deseado. Se constata que para alcanzar el futuro deseado descrito para Bizkaia se requiere de un modelo de gestión participativo que tenga presentes los vínculos entre la salud de los ecosistemas y el bienestar humano.
Evaluación y localización de los servicios de los ecosistemas en la Reserva de Biosfera de Urdaibai-País Vasco
Servicios de Regulación de los ecosistemas en la Reserva de la Biosfera de Urdaibai
En este artículo se introduce brevemente la evaluación de los ecosistemas y las funciones y servicios que ofrecen los ecosistemas. A continuación se explican los servicios de regulación que los ecosistemas de la Reserva de la Biosfera de Urdaibai aportan a la sociedad, como son la regulación atmosférica y climática, la amortiguación de perturbaciones, la regulación y disponibilidad hídrica, la retención del suelo y la regulación de nutrientes, la polinización y la conservación de la biodiversidad, así como la localización espacial de estos servicios y sus beneficiarios. Además, se explican los principales impactos y presiones que sufren los ecosistemas y sus funciones.
Marta Suarez, Amaya M. Rieiro-Díaz, David Alba, Johannes Langemeyer, Erik Gomez-Baggethun, Ibone Ametzaga-Arregi.2024. Urban resilience through green infrastructure: A framework for policy analysis applied to Madrid, Spain
Urban resilience and how to assess it have become main policy objectives in the face of accelerated climate and other global environmental change. We develop a conceptual framework and an assessment tool to analyse how green infrastructure policies contribute to urban resilience and discuss barriers and opportunities for implementation. The conceptual framework is designed to analyse how resilience is fostered through six resilience factors: diversity, self-sufficiency and autonomy, polycentric governance, social cohesion, learning and innovation, and social-ecological justice. The assessment tool consists of a resilience index composed of 30 indicators. We use the capital city of Madrid, Spain, as a case study. Our results suggest that planning policies that focus on vulnerable neighbourhoods and include mechanisms for citizen engagement are the policies that most effectively foster urban resilience. We also identified that financing and political will are major barriers for the implementation of resilience policies. We assume that the proposed framework is suitable to assess to what extent local policies foster urban resilience and suggest further testing in other cities.
Access: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204623002426
Ortega, U.; Ametzaga-Arregi, I.; Sertutxa, U.; Peña, L. 2023.
Identifying a green infrastructure to prioritise areas for restoration to enhance the landscape connectivity and the provision of ecosystem services. Landscape Ecology.
Habitat fragmentation is one of the major causes of the loss of biodiversity that our planet is experiencing. This has affected the ecosystems functioning and, consequently, the provision of ecosystem services (ES). Therefore, the European Commission, in a 2013 communication, established the concept of Green Infrastructure (GI), which is a strategically planned network of multifunctional areas with the aim of protecting biodiversity and ES supply, as well as improving ecological connectivity. Ecological restoration is an essential element to achieve the objectives of the GI, which if well targeted, could reverse widespread ecosystem degradation and improve landscape connectivity.
Peña, L., Olaziregi, I., Mesa, J., Sertutxa, U., Ortega, U., Ametzaga-Arregi, I., 2022.
Plant community and mesofauna: Eucalyptus versus oak. In minutes of the 8th Spanish Forestry Congress. Ed. Spanish Society of Forest Sciences, Catalonia. ISBN: 978-84-941695-6-4.
Sertutxa, U., Peña, L. and Ametzaga-Arregi, I., 2022.
Plant and bird diversity in exotic forests and plantations in the Basque Country. In minutes of the 8th Spanish Forestry Congress. Ed. Spanish Society of Forest Sciences, Catalonia. ISBN: 978-84-941695-6-4.
Rodriguez-Loinaz, G.; Ametzaga-Arregi, I.; Palaciops-Agundez, I.(2022). ICT tools and citizen science: a pathway to promote science learning and Education for Sustainable Development in schools. Journal of biological education.
The sustainability challenges facing humankind make necessary the con- vergence of Science Education (SE) and Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). Science learning and ESD requires the adoption of student-centred transformative teaching methods that promote values and critical thinking. This article explores the role of citizen science (CS) as an educational tool that could contribute in such transformative teaching. Innovative ICT tools that enable teachers to more easily engage their pupils in CS-based activities tailored to their local environment and teach- ing objectives have been developed and implemented in eight case studies, involving 214 students and seven teachers from three schools in Greece, the United Kingdom, and Spain. The results showed that: a) the CS-based educational initiatives contributed to improving natural science learning and represented progress in the development and integration of students’ competencies for sustainability; b) the developed ICT tools increased students’ interest and motivation; c) versatile ICT tools and platforms for teachers’ co-working can contribute to the inclusion of CS in the curriculum and thereby to the inclusion of ESD in schools. We conclude that such educational initiatives can contribute to the conver- gence of SE and ESD and help students develop global skills, preparing them for 21st century sustainability challenges.
(ES)Los desafíos de sostenibilidad a los que se enfrenta la humanidad hacen necesario la convergencia de la Educación Científica (SE) y la Educación para el Desarrollo Sostenible (ESD). El aprendizaje de la ciencia y la DES requieren la adopción de métodos de enseñanza transformadores centrados en la práctica que promuevan valores y pensamiento crítico. Este artículo explora el papel de la ciencia ciudadana (CS) como una herramienta educativa que podría contribuir a dicha enseñanza transformadora. En ocho estudios de casos, en los que participaron 214 estudiantes y siete profesores de tres escuelas de Grecia, el Reino Unido y España, se han desarrollado y aplicado herramientas innovadoras de TIC que permiten a los profesores participar más fácilmente en las actividades basadas en la CSs. Los resultados mostraron que: a) las iniciativas educativas basadas en la CS contribuyeron a mejorar el aprendizaje de las ciencias naturales y representaron un progreso en el desarrollo e integración de las competencias de los estudiantes para la sostenibilidad; b) las herramientas de TIC desarrolladas aumentaron el interés y la motivación de los estudiantes; c) las herramientas y plataformas de TIC versátiles para el trabajo en equipo de los profesores pueden contribuir a la inclusión de la CS en el plan de estudios y, por tanto, a la inclusión de la ESD en las escuelas. Concluimos que tales iniciativas educativas pueden contribuir a la convergencia de la SE y la DES y ayudar a los estudiantes a desarrollar habilidades globales, preparándolos para desafíos de sostenibilidad del siglo XXI.
(EUS) Gizateriak aurre egin behar dien iraunkortasun-erronkei erantzuteko, beharrezkoa da Hezkuntza Zientifikoa (SE) eta Garapen Iraunkorrerako Hezkuntza (ESD) bateratzea. Zientzia eta DESa ikasteko, balioak eta pentsamendu kritikoa sustatzen dituzten irakaskuntza-metodo eraldatzaileak erabili behar dira. Artikulu honek herritarren zientziak (CS) irakaskuntza eraldatzaile horretan lagun dezakeen hezkuntza-tresna gisa duen eginkizuna aztertzen du. Greziako, Erresuma Batuko eta Espainiako hiru eskoletako 214 ikaslek eta zazpi irakaslek parte hartu zuten zortzi kasu-azterketatan, eta IKTetako tresna berritzaileak garatu eta aplikatu dira, irakasleei CSetan oinarritutako jardueretan errazago parte hartzeko aukera ematen dietenak. Emaitzak hauek izan dira: a) CSn oinarritutako hezkuntza-ekimenek lagundu egin zuten natur zientzien ikaskuntza hobetzen, eta aurrerapen bat ekarri zuten ikasleen iraunkortasunerako gaitasunen garapenean eta integrazioan; b) garatutako IKTen tresnek ikasleen interesa eta motibazioa handitu zuten; c) irakasleen talde-lanerako IKTen tresna eta plataformak lagungarriak izan daitezke GZak ikasketa-planean eta eskoletan sartzeko. Ondorioztatzen dugu hezkuntza-ekimen horiek SE eta DES bateratzen lagun dezaketela, eta ikasleei trebetasun globalak garatzen lagundu, XXI. mendeko iraunkortasun-erronketarako prestatuz.
Link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00219266.2021.2017322
Rodriguez-Loinaz, G.; Palaciops-Agundez, I.(2022). Teaching ecosystem services: a pathway to improve students’ argumentation in favour of nature conservation and sustainable development?. Journal of biological education.
Ecosystem services (ES) are the benefits people obtain from nature contributing to our well-being. Although this concept has high didactic potential, its presence in education literature is scarce. This article presents the ES framework as a new teaching principle that, taught together with the biodiversity concept, may help students develop competencies to make valid claims about the world and to think critically about humans’ role on Earth. To do so, we present an educational experience based on active teaching and learning strategies implemented with pre-service teachers (PSTs), which is adaptable and transferable to many educational contexts. Teaching ES through active teaching methodologies has proven to be useful and necessary to help PSTs understand and be able to defend the importance of nature conservation. As a result of teaching the ES concept, students improved their argumentation in favour of nature conservation and developed communication competencies to better transfer this knowledge to society. We conclude that teaching ES can make a large contribution to education for sustainable development, as teaching the ES concept contributes to acquiring knowledge, skills (e.g. argumentation capacity) and values that are necessary to shape a sustainable future.
Link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00219266.2021.2017322
Hernández-Salinas, A. ;Viota, M. ;Onaindia, M. ;Ametzaga-Arregi, I. ;Peña, L. ;Fernández, B. ; Unzueta,J. ;Purwanto,Y. ;Tasirin,J.S. ; Mamangkey,N.G.F.F. ;Saroinsong,F.B. (2021). Promoting the Co-Creation of Knowledge under Physical Distancing Conditions through the Participation of Youth in the Bunaken-Tangkoko-Minahasa Biosphere Reserve (North Sulawesi, Indonesia) †. Environ. Sci. Proc.2021, 5, 21. https://doi.org/10.3390/IECG2020-08740
Las Reservas de Biosfera son laboratorios de sostenibilidad que aportan soluciones locales a los desafíos globales. Promueven la investigación, la educación y la creación de comunidades prácticas que en conjunto generan conocimientos que pueden ser aplicables en la toma de decisiones. El contexto de la pandemia mundial de COVID-19 supuso un gran desafío para todos los procesos de enseñanza y aprendizaje y, por lo tanto, para la co-creación de conocimiento. En respuesta, desarrollamos un entorno de enseñanza en línea (webinar) para mejorar el valor de los ecosistemas y analizar la percepción de los jóvenes, un grupo de interés clave en la gobernanza participativa del territorio, en relación con la provisión de servicios ecosistémicos en la Reserva de la Biosfera en Indonesia. Tomamos como referencia la experiencia del Proyecto “Evaluación de Servicios Ecosistémicos del País Vasco” y desarrollamos un cuestionario sobre la percepción de la prestación de servicios ecosistémicos locales. Nuestros resultados contribuyen a establecer una base para comprender la relación de la juventud con el territorio y establecer una cooperación científica internacional. Esta experiencia demostró que la promoción de soluciones en línea puede ayudar a paliar los efectos negativos de la pandemia global en los procesos de enseñanza y aprendizaje y también ayudar en el empoderamiento de los actores locales para compartir la gestión local en el territorio.
Biosphere Reserves are laboratories of sustainability that provide local solutions to global challenges. They promote research, education and the creation of communities of practice that jointly generate knowledge that may be applicable in decision-making. The context of the global COVID-19 pandemic posed a great challenge to all teaching and learning processes and so to the co-creation of knowledge. In response, we developed an online teaching environment (webinar) to enhance the value of ecosystems and analyze the perception of youth, a key interest group in participatory governance of the territory, in relation to the provision of ecosystem services in the Biosphere Reserve in Indonesia. We took the experience of the Project “Ecosystem Services Assessment of the Basque Country” as a reference and developed a questionnaire on the perception of the provision of local ecosystem services. Our results contribute to establishing a baseline to understand the relationship of youth with the territory and to setting up an international scientific cooperation. This experience showed that the promotion of online solutions can help counteract the negative effects of the global pandemic on teaching and learning processes and also empower local actors in sharing local management in the territory.
B.F. de Manuel; L.Mendez-Fernandez, L. Peña, I. Ametzaga-Arregi. Basic and Applied Ecology 53 (2021). A new indicator of the effectiveness of urban green infrastructure based on ecosystem services assessment. ISSN: 1439-1791
La contribución de la infraestructura verde urbana (IVU) al bienestar de las personas ha quedado demostrada en numerosos estudios científicos. Un método común para evaluar estas contribuciones es cuantificar los servicios ecosistémicos (SE) proporcionados por la vegetación o las masas de agua presentes en los espacios verdes y azules urbanos que forman la IVU. La eficiencia de los diversos tipos de espacios en la prestación de varios SE podría ser considerada por los planificadores o gestores urbanos para definir objetivos específicos en futuros procesos de planificación. En este artículo las autoras proponen un enfoque metodológico para desarrollar una IVU eficaz basada en un índice de desajustes entre la oferta y la demanda (MbSDES) de tres servicios ecosistémicos (retención de escorrentías, purificación del aire y refrigeración) proporcionados por diferentes espacios en la ciudad de Bilbao (País Vasco, Norte de España).
The contribution of urban green infrastructure (UGI) to human well-being has been demonstrated in several studies. A common method to evaluate such contributions is to measure the ecosystem services (ES) provided by the vegetation or water bodies present in urban green and blue spaces (UGBS) that constitute the UGI. The efficiency and spatial distribution of diverse types of UGBS in the provision of various ES could be considered by urban planners or managers to define specific objectives in future planning processes. In this context, we propose a methodological approach to develop an effective UGI based on an index of mismatches between supply and demand of ES (MbSDES) that addresses the mismatches between supply and demand for three ES (run-off retention, air purification, and cooling) provided by different UGBS in the city of Bilbao (Basque Country, North Spain).
El desarrollo sostenible debe basarse en el conocimiento científico, los acuerdos sociales y decisiones políticas. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo analizar la implementación del enfoque de los servicios de los ecosistemas en la ordenación del territorio del País Vasco, a través de la co-creación de conocimiento. Este documento utiliza una propuesta para una infraestructura verde regional para examinar la co-creación de proceso de conocimiento.
Sustainable development has to be based on scientific knowledge, social agreements, and political decisions. This study aimed to analyse the implementation of the ecosystem services approach (ESA) in the spatial planning of the Basque Country, via the co-creation of knowledge. This paper uses a proposal for a regional green infrastructure (GI) to examine the co-creation of knowledge process. It addresses the community of practice; a process of co-creation of knowledge through workshops and meeting, SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) analysis using an online survey, and mapping and identification of the multifunctional areas that provide ecosystem services (ES) to develop a GI. Results indicate that ESA has been included in spatial planning actions at different scales (biosphere reserve, metropolitan area, and region).
La combinación de valoraciones socioculturales de los servicios de los ecosistemas con evaluaciones ecológicas y monetarias es fundamental para informar la toma de decisiones con un enfoque integrador y de múltiples frentes. Este estudio examinó las diferencias en las percepciones del suministro de servicios de los ecosistemas y la diversidad en ocho tipos de ecosistemas principales en España y analizó los factores sociales y ecológicos que dan forma a estas percepciones.
Combining socio-cultural valuations of ecosystem services with ecological and monetary assessments is critical to informing decision making with an integrative and multi-pronged approach. This study examined differences in the perceptions of ecosystem service supply and diversity across eight major ecosystem types in Spain and scrutinized the social and ecological factors shaping these perceptions. First, we implemented 1932 face-to-face questionnaires among local inhabitants to assess perceptions of ecosystem service supply. Second, we created an ecosystem service diversity index to measure the perceived diversity of services considering agroecosystems, Mediterranean mountains, arid systems, two aquatic continental systems, coastal ecosystems and two urban ecosystems. Finally, we examined the influence of biophysical, socio-demographic and institutional factors in shaping ecosystem service perceptions. Overall, cultural services were the most widely perceived, followed by provisioning and regulating services. Provisioning services were most strongly associated with agroecosystems, mountains and coastal systems, whereas cultural services were associated with urban ecosystems and regulating services were specifically linked with agroecosystems, mountains and urban recreational areas. The highest service diversity index values corresponded to agroecosystems, mountains and wetlands. Our results also showed that socio-demographic factors, such as place of origin (urban vs. rural) and educational level, as well as institutional factors, such as management and access regimes, shaped the perception of ecosystem services.
Los espacios verdes urbanos y periurbanos brindan múltiples oportunidades de recreo con importantes beneficios para el bienestar físico y psicológico, pero el acceso a estos beneficios a menudo se distribuye de manera desigual. Existen varias metodologías para evaluar las oportunidades de recreo al aire libre, pero rara vez toman en consideración las dimensiones de la justicia ambiental. El objetivo de este documento es mapear y evaluar las oportunidades de recreo al aire libre basadas en la naturaleza. con un enfoque en la accesibilidad de espacios verdes para diferentes grupos sociales, y discutir los resultados a la luz de la justicia ambiental.
Urban and peri-urban green space provides multiple recreation opportunities with important benefits for physical and psychological well-being, but access to these benefits is often unequally distributed. Various methodologies to assess outdoor recreation opportunities exist, but they rarely take into consideration dimensions of environmental justice. The aim of this paper is to map and assess nature-based outdoor recreation opportunities with a focus on green space accessibility for different social groups, and discuss the results in light of environmental justice. We use the Oslo metropolitan area, Norway, as a case study. We combine statistical analysis with spatial modelling to assess recreation preferences and distribution of nature-based recreation opportunities. We also analyse accessibility for different social groups, including children and the elderly, migrants and lowincome households. Our results show that most people prefer large wooded green areas, high density of trees, and presence of water, although preferences differ depending on age and place of residence. Areas for daily recreation are accessible to the whole population in the study area, but they are unequally distributed, migrants and low-income households having relatively less access. Our methodology can also be applied in other cities and metropolitan areas to assess differences in accessibility to outdoor recreation opportunities. We discuss whether and to which extent these results illustrate a situation of environmental injustice. We conclude that the relation between access to green space and environmental justice can be complex, and that injustice may not automatically result from uneven access.
Artículo publicado en el marco de la Enciclopedia sobre Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible de Naciones Unidas. Se analiza el estado actual del conocimiento sobre los impactos de la urbanización en la biodiversidad y se presentan casos recientes en la gestión eficaz.
While there are certainly costs associated with urbanization that must be mitigated, responsible urban development also offers opportunities to manage human population growth and consumption in ways that can reduce pressures on natural landscapes and create new urban ecological niches. It is therefore imperative that societies take the connection between biodiversity and urbanization seriously in order to manage the impact of this new trend to ensure responsible and sustainable growth. The remainder of this chapter explores the current state of knowledge on the impacts of urbanization on biodiversity and recent trends in effective management.
Ainhoa Urkijo-Letona, Susana Cárcamo, Lorena Peña , Beatriz Fernández de Manuel, Miren Onaindia and Ibone Ametzaga-Arregi. 2020. Key Elements of the White-Backed Woodpecker´s (Dendrocopos leucotos lilfordi) Habitat in Its European South-Western Limits. Forest. 831; doi:10.3390/f11080831.
En la última década se ha observado en Navarra un fuerte descenso en la población del pájaro carpintero de espalda blanca (Dendrocopos leucotos lilfordi) (WBW) debido principalmente al intenso manejo forestal que ha dado lugar a la pérdida del hábitat donde se reproduce esta especie, conduciéndolo casi a su extinción. Así, el objetivo de este estudio fue identificar los elementos estructurales claves de los hábitats donde se reproduce esta especie en su zona de distribución más al sur y analizar el efecto de su presencia sobre la composición de hongos saproxílicos en estos hábitats.
In the last decade, the population of the white-backed woodpecker (Dendrocopos leucotos lilfordi) (WBW) in Navarre has been reduced mainly due to the loss of suitable habitat for this species from intensive forest management, leading almost to its extinction. This study aimed to identify the key structural elements of breeding habitats of the WBW and analyze their effect on the composition of the saproxylic fungi community within the habitats. In the Special Area of Conservation, namely Quinto Real in Navarre, 20 circular plots (500 m2) and 10 transects (150–300 m) were located inside and outside WBW territories. Within each sample plot, forest structure, deadwood, microhabitats, regeneration, and saproxylic fungi community were studied. The results showed that the key elements in the WBW territories were high trees, high diversity of deadwood (with a high presence of big and late-decay deadwood), high snag volume, and high microhabitat diversity. Although the past management is also evident in the variability of some of those characteristics, this species is well adapted to different structural and compositional conditions of the territory. The saproxylic fungi community was richer among the WBW territories, and in those areas, the presence of Fomes fomentarius was high, compared to non-WBW territories where it was not present. In conclusion, to maintain and protect the studied population, it is necessary to implement sustainable management that guarantees the conservation of the key elements for the WBW territories (structural heterogeneity and high deadwood diversity) in order to increase the suitability of the habitat for WBWs.
La creciente urbanización en todo el mundo exige un desarrollo urbano más sostenible. Simultáneamente, la crisis mundial de la biodiversidad acentúa la necesidad de fomentar la biodiversidad dentro de las ciudades. Se entrevistó a más de 2.000 personas en 19 ciudades europeas, una de ellas Bilbao, en relación a sus actitudes hacia la gestión de los pastizales urbanos en los espacios verdes públicos. Los resultados revelan que las personas en toda Europa apoyan la conversión de los céspedes urbanos a pastizales para incrementar así la biodiversidad, lo cual supone una oportunidad para considerar la conservación de la biodiversidad como aspecto obligatorio de las futuras políticas de espacios verdes públicos y planificación urbana.
Increasing urbanization worldwide calls for more sustainable urban development. Simultaneously, the global biodiversity crisis accentuates the need of fostering biodiversity within cities. Policies supporting urban nature conservation need to understand people’s acceptance of biodiversity-friendly greenspace management. We surveyed more than 2,000 people in 19 European cities about their attitudes toward near-natural urban grassland management in public greenspaces, and related their responses to nine sociocultural parameters. Results reveal that people across Europe can support urban biodiversity, yet within the frames of a generally tidy appearance of public greenery. Younger people and those using greenspaces for a greater variety of activities were more likely to favor biodiversity-friendly greenspace management. Additionally, people who were aware of the meaning of biodiversity and those stating responsibility for biodiversity conservation particularly supported biodiversity-friendly greenspace management. Our results point at explicit measures like environmental education to increase public acceptance of policies that facilitate nature conservation within cities.
Nekane Castillo-Eguskitza, David Hoyos, Miren Onaindia, Mikolaj Czajkowski. 2019. Unraveling local preferences and willingness to pay for different management scenarios: A choice experiment to biosphere reserve management. Land Use Policy, 88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.104200
La valoración económica de los servicios de los ecosistemas se ha convertido en una herramienta valiosa para promover la conservación y la gestión sostenible de la tierra. Este estudio informa de los resultados de un experimento utilizado para analizar las preferencias de la población local y la disposición a pagar por servicios ecosistémicos seleccionados resultantes de diferentes escenarios de gestión en la Reserva de la Biosfera de Urdaibai (Vizcaya, España).
Economic valuation of ecosystem services has emerged as a valuable tool to promote conservation and sustainable land management. Our study adds to this literature, by reporting the results of a discrete choice experiment used to analyse local population preferences and willingness-to-pay for selected ecosystem services resulting from different management scenarios in the Urdaibai Biosphere Reserve (Biscay, Spain). The ecosystem services considered include quality of water bodies, agricultural production, native forest protection, biodiversity, and recreation. The results indicate that the local population is willing to financially support a new management plan focused on theimprovement of ecosystem health and landscape multifunctionality and sustainability, with recreation being the least valued ecosystem service. These findings may be used to inform conservation and management policies to maximize social well-being. They can also help to prioritize investments and allocation of funding and hence minimise land use conflicts.
La búsqueda de un equilibrio entre la conservación de la naturaleza y el desarrollo sostenible sigue siendo un desafío en la planificación territorial. En este estudio, evaluamos los cambios de usos del suelo y estimamos el valor monetario y biofísico de los servicios de los ecosistemas en la Reserva de la Biosfera de Urdaibai, de forma que identificamos el solapamiento espacial entre ambas valoraciones según la zonificación de la reserva. Este procedimiento puede ser una herramienta útil para la planificación social-ecológica y el diseño de estrategias de conservación para el desarrollo sostenible del territorio.
The search for a balance between nature conservation and sustainable development remains a scientific and spatial planning challenge. In social-ecological systems based on traditional rural activities and associated with protected areas, this balance is particularly complex. Quantifying the economic impact of land use changes on ecosystem services can be useful to advise policy makers and improving social-ecological sustainability. In this study, we evaluated the land use changes in a time series and estimated the monetary value of the ecosystem services of the Urdaibai Biosphere Reserve (Biscay, Spain). In addition, we linked the monetary and biophysical values of land uses in each zoning units of the reserve, in order to identify the spatial adjustment between both assessments. Results showed that land use changes have clearly homogenized the landscape without substantially affecting its economic value. The methodological approach allowed detection that the reserve zoning was performed based more on its biophysical values than on economic ones. Thus, evident divergences between the biophysical and economic assessments were found. The core area was the one that had the highest coincidences (medium values) between both ecosystem services assessments, which highlights its importance not only in biophysical terms, is also economical. The procedure followed proved to be a useful tool to social-ecological planning and design of specific conservation strategies for the sustainable development of the area.
Las plantas medicinales son un servicio del ecosistema directamente relacionado con el bienestar humano. En muchas comunidades rurales, constituyen un tratamiento principal para las enfermedades o una fuente de la prevención de enfermedades. En este artículo revisamos el conocimiento tradicional de las plantas medicinales, los beneficios que proporcionan cuando son cultivadas en huertos caseros, y los determinantes del conocimiento sobre sus usos en una parroquia rural en el Ecuador amazónico, donde prevalecen dos grupos étnicos: los indígenas Shuar y los mestizos asentados.
Medicinal plants are an ecosystem service directly implicated in human well-being. In many rural communities, they constitute a main treatment for disease or a source of disease prevention. Here, we review traditional knowledge of medicinal plants, the benefits they provide when cultivated in home gardens, and the determinants of knowledge about their uses in a rural parish in Amazonian Ecuador, where two ethnic groups prevail: indigenous Shuar and settled mestizos.
Este estudio explora el potencial del concepto de los servicios de los ecosistemas como concepto (“new Esperanto”) para facilitar la integración de la percepción y objetivos de todos los agentes en los planes de gestión. Se analizaron 11 casos para ver cómo se había utilizado el concepto de servicio de los ecosistemas en los procesos de participación realizados, y para identificar en los casos de éxito las lecciones aprendidas. Finalmente se dan una serie de recomendaciones para su futura aplicación en procesos participativos.
Several case studies investigated the role of ecosystem services in participatory planning processes. However, no systematic study exists that cuts across a large number of empirical cases to identify the implications of using ecosystem services in participatory planning. This study explores the potential of the ecosystem services concept to act as a boundary concept (‘‘new Esperanto’’) to facilitate the integration of actors’ perceptions and objectives into planning goals. We analyzed eleven case studies to explore how the ecosystem services concept has been operationalized to support participatory planning processes, and to identify lessons from successful applications. We characterized the case studies according to contextual and methodological criteria. Each case study was assessed through a codified score card method in order to detect success or failure criteria in using the ecosystem services concept in participatory planning. We compared the case study criteria with the results of the balanced score card method.
El objetivo de este artículo es identificar las sinergias y trade offs entre los servicios más importantes que proveen los ecosistemas del Bilbao Metropolitano para reorientar sus planes de gestión. Una vez analizadas las mismas se proponen las áreas más idóneas para formar parte de la Infraestrcutura Verde del Bilbao Metropolitano.
In the last decades, some European cities have undergone important changes in search of a more sustainable development. This is the case for the city of Bilbao (Bizkaia, Basque Country), where a Greenbelt has been maintained surrounding the urban areas allowing the periurban areas to deliver ecosystem services (ES) to society. However, the role of the different ecosystems in the provision of ES is not the same, which can lead to conflicts among them. The aim of this study is to analyze the synergies and trade-offs among the eight most important ES in the Bilbao Metropolitan Greenbelt (BMG) to orient their management strategies towards more multifunctional landscapes. We mapped the ES and overlapped them looking for the most relevant areas for the provision of multiple ES and areas that are mostly lacking ES provision. We identify also existing ES trade-offs and synergies between ES using correlations so that managers can prioritize preservation efforts of land use types in the rest of the area. The results show that provisioning ES had trade-offs with regulating and cultural ES and the latter showed synergies between them. The former are mainly delivered by semi-natural ecosystems, while regulating and cultural ES are delivered mainly by natural ecosystems. Moreover, the most relevant areas for the provision of multiple ES were proposed as potential components of a Green Infrastructure (GI). Their identification and ES bundles could help decision-makers to orient their management strategies towards sustainability in metropolitan areas.
El objetivo de este artículo es identificar la sinérgias y trade offs entre la capacidad agrologica y los servicios que proveen los ecosistemas de Bizkaia. Una vez analizadas las mismas se proponen las áreas más idóneas para ser sustituidas para nuevos desarrollos agrícolas.
New solutions are necessary for the reconciliation of food production and environmental conservation. This study focuses on determining the synergies and trade-offs between agrological capacity and ecosystem services (ES) in an industrialized region in northern Iberian Peninsula in order to improve an efficient use of soils. The methodology provided here allows the mapping of the best areas for equilibrating both agrological capacity and provision of ES. We specifically determine the most suitable areas to develop new agricultural activities with the greatest efficacy. Results highlight the synergies between agrological capacity, habitat maintenance, pollination, and aesthetic values. Moreover, the creation of new grasslands and croplands in productive soils occupied by forest plantations would enhance agriculture, some ES, and landscape multi-functionality. However, decreasing the area of forest plantations in favour of agricultural lands would create trade-offs with carbon storage. These trade-offs could be relativized if actual environmental and economical situations are taken into account. Based on the results obtained applying the proposed methodology, policy-makers have the opportunity to manage a transition towards more sustainable land use through specific actions while increasing local food security.
En este artículo presentamos una propuesta metodológica para examinar (des)ajustes entre los diferentes componentes de los servicios de los ecosistemas (oferta, demanda e interés) en la Reserva de la Biosfera de Urdaibai.
Integrated assessment of ecosystem services involves the recognition of value pluralism and the inclusion of the different components of ecosystem services, ranging from supply to social demand and interest. Supply refers to the capacity of ecosystems to provide services, while demand refers to the allocation of money or willingness to obtain a particular service and interest to the importance assigned to services. Yet, a comprehensive assessment of ecosystem services which integrates these three components is still unexplored. This paper proposes a methodological approach to examine (mis)matches, i.e. differences or similarities in quality or quantity, when analysing the supply, demand and interest components of ecosystem services. We assessed twelve ecosystem services in four different units socioeconomically and environmentally similar of the social-ecological system of the Urdaibai Biosphere Reserve in Northern Spain. Results showed that the different ecosystem services components provide divergent but complementary information regarding their value. We also found that the information obtained is consistent across different spatial units with similar socio-economic characteristics, suggesting that the mismatch patterns among ecosystem services components are more related to the set of ecosystem services assessed than the socio-economic characteristics and land uses of the area of study. Our findings strengthen arguments of former calls for integration of the biophysical, monetary and socio-cultural values addressed by the supply, demand and interest components of ecosystem services.
El objetivo de este estudio es identificar los componentes principales de la Infraestructura Verde a nivel local para desarrollar un esquema económico compensatorio.
The contributions of green infrastructure (GI) to human well-being have been widely recognised; however, pathways for its systematic implementation are missing. Local governments can play a crucial role in the conservation of GI, and a formal recognition of this role in budgeting systems would foster the inclusion of GI in their agenda. The aim of this study is to identify the principal components of GI at the local level to form a basis for a compensatory economic scheme. We identified the principal components of GI based on the mapping of biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services provision. Furthermore, we analysed the potentiality of an incentive mechanism to promote GI based on the protection status of GI. Finally, an incentive mechanism to promote GI at the municipality level was proposed. The results showed that the GI of Biscay is mainly composed of the natural forests presented in the area, and that 50% of the principal components of the GI are not protected. Furthermore, one third of the protected principal components of the GI only has protection at the municipality level. So, we propose a Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES)-like scheme at the municipality level based on the cover of natural forests, where the objective is the conservation and promotion of the GI.
En este artículo se presentan de manera integrada los resultados del proyecto transdisciplinar de investigación sobre Evaluación de Servicios de los Ecosistemas llevado a cabo en Euskadi y se resaltan las claves de este enfoque integral y transdisciplinar, que cuenta con una comunidad de aprendizaje y está impulsando la puesta en práctica de políticas innovadoras.
To sustain cultural ecosystem services and cultural heritage it is important to go in depth in the science policy interface, because efficient governance mechanisms emerge from the cooperation of scientists and practitioners. In the Basque Country, we are on the road towards adaptive and resilient landscape management through an integrative approach that enhances the link between science, policy-making and society. Key elements of this approach are: The establishment from the outset of a transdisciplinar community of practice; the creation of specific transdisciplinar working groups to go in depth with concrete applicability measures; a strong outreach strategy and educational programs development; and last but not least, the involvement of stakeholders at multiple stage of the process. Diverse research lines are carried out during the process (e.g. mapping ecosystems services, analyzing social perceptions), whose results are combined to help identify response options for sustainable landscape. Relevant policy implementations of the results of this broad research are already taking place in the Basque Country. The proved utility of this working mechanism makes key agents to continue involved, and to attract more agents into the process. These transdisciplinary processes facilitate the creation of synergies and win-win solutions towards sustainable management of cultural ecosystem services.
Josu G. Alday, Elene Etxeberria, Ibone Ametzaga. 2017. Conversion of Pinus radiata plantations to native forest after harvest operations: a north Iberian Peninsula case study. Eur J Forest Res.DOI 10.1007/s10342-017-1071-2
Restauración del bosque autóctono en una plantación forestal de coníferas utilizando la gestión forestal como herramienta de facilitación del proceso.
There is broad consensus on restoration of native woodlands in places where intensive forestry is nowadays not profitable. However, this consensus is lost when stakeholders need to implement forest management practices as restoration tool, especially because there is a substantial lack of empirical evidence about its feasibility. In this context, we assess the impact of two different harvest treatments on understorey plant species composition of Pinus radiata plantations as tools to recover native woodland vegetation in northern Iberian Peninsula. Here, common clear-cut treatment and restoration-clear-cut where only pine trees were removed (i.e. reducing the disturbance effect over understorey vegetation) were compared against understorey plant species composition of young and old plantations and restored tracks. The aim was to identify which treatment is more suitable to recover native woodland vegetation. The results reveal that both clear-cuts maintained species composition plus important understorey native species, some of them being restoration targets. However, both clear-cuts showed diversity reductions compared with old plantations, although there were not apparent retention effects on compositional change towards native communities at least two years after harvest. It seems that the remaining vegetation established by natural succession after both clear-cut treatments could be used to achieve initial restoration objectives for some native tree and understorey plant species at relatively low costs. In any case, it would be interesting to implement supplementary management measures to accelerate this conversion, such as invasive species elimination or target species seeding, to maintain local biodiversity and introduce native woodland species not present in the area.
I. Palacios-Agundez, J. Unzueta, G. Rodriguez-Loinaz, M. Onaindia, 2017. Lifelong learning on sustainability for personal, professional and social transformation: analyzing a seven year experience from the University of the Basque Country. Proceedings of EDULEARN17 Conference 3rd-5th July 2017, Barcelona, Spain. ISBN: 978-84-697-3777-4.
Análisis de los resultados de una encuesta realizada a antiguos alumnos/as del posgrado en Medio Ambiente y Sostenibilidad de la UPV/EHU.
The UNESCO Chair on Sustainable Development and Environmental Education of the University of the Basque Country (Spain) has offered for seven editions a Postgraduate course on Environment and Sustainability. This postgraduate degree (30 ETCS credits) is mainly composed of lectures, workshops and field trips, and includes a final presentation and discussion of an applied project. It also includes the option of realizing an internship programme in different companies, institutions and NGOs. Students and professionals from different areas of knowledge take part in the course and learn on sustainability together with an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary panel of teachers. In order to analyze students’ satisfaction on the course, determine the rate of employment of post-students in jobs related to sustainability and analyze if the course has provoked them a lifelong learning towards sustainability, we conducted a survey on post-students. 48% of the students of the seven editions answered the survey. Results show that students’ satisfaction on the course is high. What students liked most of the course is its interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary character, the great variety and quality of teachers from different professional backgrounds and with expertise in diverse sustainability subjects, the opportunity to make professional contacts, the active participation of the group, the internship programmes and the final applied project. 90% of student made an internship programme in different companies, institutions or NGOs. 92% of them said that they learned a lot in those work practices. With regard to employability, 50% consider that this postgraduate has served them to find a job related to sustainability.
Estudio sobre la relación conservación – desarrollo socioeconómico y cultural en la Reserva de la Biosfera de Urdaibai (Bizkaia) a través de análisis de ordenación multivariantes y mediante su comparación con otro área no protegida.
The protected area approach has extended from conserving biodiversity to improving human well-being. However, the relationship between conservation and socioeconomic and cultural development continues to be controversial. This paper combines land use variables with socioeconomic and cultural variables through multivariate ordination analysis and evaluates their evolution in two areas inside and outside a Biosphere Reserve since the approval of the Governance Plan for Use and Management in the Reserve. The results indicate a similar tendency in the two areas, from the abandonment of traditional rural activities and decline in pine plantations to naturalness, urban sprawl and the growth of the tertiary economic sector, welfare indicators and sustainability index. However, it can be broadly observed that the region included inside the protected area presents better conservation features (native forest) and rural systems (forestry and primary economic sector) than the region outside the protected area while maintaining similar socioeconomic and cultural conditions. We suggest that the designation of the Biosphere Reserve does not influence the local population negatively but does safeguard its conservation, which could have enhanced socioeconomic and cultural development. Thus, even though certain changes must be made to replace the conifer plantations and encourage agricultural activities, the designation of the protected area fulfills its sustainability goal and enhances the local population’s quality of life.
Análisis de la percepción que posee la sociedad sobre algunas características de la biodiversidad y los servicios de los ecosistemas en un bosque tropical en la parroquia de Sangay, Ecuador.
The Amazon basin is widely recognized for its high biological and cultural diversity, enabling the provision of many ecosystem services. This study explores social perceptions of some of the features of biodiversity and ecosystem services in a tropical forest in Sangay Parish, Ecuador. Following a survey of residents, we identified three groups whose perceptions vary in relation to socioeconomic characteristics, cultural backgrounds, lifestyles, and the benefits obtained from the Sangay forest. Mestizo professionals, with a better socioeconomic situation, identify more regulation and cultural services; Shuar farmers have a comprehensive knowledge of biodiversity features and rely on provisioning services; and Shuar gatherers consume more forest products but are the least likely to formally recognize ecosystem services. We emphasize the importance of identifying social groups within a population and understanding their particular characteristics and perspectives before developing conservation and land use planning policies.
Un estudio que analiza la sostenibilidad de los paisajes en la Reserva de Urdaibai a través de la relación entre las unidades de paisaje y las actividades socioeconómicas.
El objetivo principal de este estudio es analizar la sostenibilidad de los paisajes en la Reserva de la Biosfera de Urdaibai (RBU) a través de la relación entre las unidades de paisaje y las actividades socioeconómicas. La RBU se encuentra en el norte de España, siendo un área de gran valor ecológico y paisajístico en un entorno urbanizado. El paisaje está compuesto por numerosas y variadas unidades compuestas por comunidades espontáneas y aquellas que dependen de las actividades humanas. La actividad económica depende principalmente del sector industrial y del de servicios. Se realizó un Análisis de Componentes Principales (PCA) utilizando indicadores territoriales y socioeconómicos para cada municipio. La relación entre el paisaje y la actividad socioeconómica se realizó mediante la prueba de correlación múltiple de Pearson. Nuestros resultados sugieren que la sostenibilidad de las unidades del paisaje cultural en la UBR está vinculada a las actividades socioeconómicas en el sector industrial y el de servicios.
Holistic approach including biological and geological criteria for integrative management in protected areas.
Biodiversity hotspots and geosites are indivisible parts of natural heritage. Therefore, an adequate spatial delimitation and understanding of both and their linkages are necessary in order to be able to establish conservation policies. Normally, biodiversity hotspots are a typical target for those policies but, generally, geosites are not taken into account. Thus, this paper aims to fill this gap by providing an easily replicable method for the identification and integration of the geosites and the biodiversity hotspots in a Network for Integrative Nature Conservation that highlights their linkages. The method here presented has been applied to Urdaibai Biosphere Reserve (UBR) situated in southeastern of the Bay of Biscay. The obtained results indicate that some geosites that are not directly related with biodiversity hotspots remain unprotected. Thus, from the study carried out it can state that our conserving just biodiversity hotspots is not enough to conserve the whole natural heritage of a protected area, as some plots interesting due to their relevant geoheritage remain unprotected. Therefore, it is necessary to fully integrate geosites into the planning documents of protected areas as a part of an ecosystem approach. The ecosystem approach recognizes the integrity of abiotic and biotic elements in nature conservation policies. Moreover, the proposed framework and the innovative methodology can be used as an easy input to identify priority areas for conservation, to improve the protected areas conservation planning, and to demonstrate the linkages between biodiversity hotspots and geosites.
Este estudio muestra cómo los jardines privados pueden desempeñar un papel clave en la conservación de la diversidad vegetal y al mismo tiempo proveer de servicios de los ecosistemas los cuales tienen un impacto directo y positivo en el bienestar humano.
Homegardens (HG) can play a key role in the conservation of plant diversity and at the same time provide ecosystem services that have a direct and positive impact on human welfare. The relationships among plant diversity, ecosystem services, and the factors that influence them formed the subject of study in tropical HG in Sangay, Ecuador. We compiled information from 138 HG in 11 localities and found 484 plant species associated with 20 ecosystem services, the most important of which, according to interviews with the gardeners, provide food, medicine and ornamentation. Influential physical factors on plant diversity in the HG were altitude, precipitation and temperature, while socioeconomic factors, including ethnicity, gender, income and education, were perhaps more important determinants of HG diversity. Three groups of HG were identified by Hierarchical Ascendant Correspondence Analysis: “small HG of recent origin,” having the fewest species and ecosystem services, “large, transitional HG,” having a wide range of services, and “medium, established HG,” mainly supplying food, medicine, ornamentation, shade and fencing. Ethnicity may be a stronger determinant of differences in HG composition: for Shuar people, HG were a main source of food, critical to their subsistence in rural areas; in total, Shuar gardeners cultivated on the whole more plant species. On the other hand, HG belonging to mestizos were more diverse, have more exotic plant species, and provide mainly cultural and regulatory services. HG in more urban settings mainly provided ornamentation, fencing and shade. This information can be applied by policy makers to the design of strategies for biodiversity conservation and food security.
Peña, L., Monge-Ganuzas, M., Onaindia, M., Fernández de Manuel, B., Mendia, M., 2016. A Holistic approach including biological and geological criteria for integrative management in protected areas. Environmental Management. DOI 10.1007/s00267-016-0781-4.
Un enfoque holístico que incluye criterios biológicos y geológicos para una gestión integrada de las áreas protegidas.
El patrimonio natural está formado tanto por el patrimonio biológico como por el geológico. Por tanto, la identificación y delimitación de ambos, y sus conexiones es necesaria para poder establecer políticas de conservación. Generalmente, las áreas relevantes por su biodiversidad son incluidas en estas políticas, sin embargo las áreas con un relevante patrimonio geológico no son tenidas en cuenta. Así, con este estudio se pretende ofrecer un método fácilmente replicable para identificar hotspots de biodiversidad y geosites e incluirlos en una red de conservación de la naturaleza integral en la que destaquen sus conexiones. El método que se presenta en este estudio ha sido aplicado en la Reserva de la Biosfera de Urdaibai. Los resultados indican que aquellos geosites que no poseen ninguna relación con la biodiversidad se encuentran actualmente desprotegidos. Por tanto, conservar unicamente los hotspot de biodiversidad no es suficiente para conservar todo el patrimonio natural que se encuetra presente en la Reserva. Así, es necesario incluir los geosites en los documentos de gestión y conservación de las áreas protegidas utilizando un enfoque ecosistémico.
Relevance for decision making of spatially explicit, participatory scenarios for ecosystem services in an area of a high current demand
This research developed an innovative methodology combining qualitative participatory scenarios with spatially explicit quantitative models to provide land use planning recommendations for the Biscay region. As part of the MillenNium AssesSment in Biscay-Basque Country Sub-global assessment, previous participatory scenario planning yielded four scenarios in the study area: Oppressed Biscay, Global Delicatessen, TechnoFaith and Cultivating Social Values. Through the current research, these participatory scenarios have been complemented and revised through spatially explicit analysis of land cover in the four scenarios, with the aims to: verify the coherency and plausibility of the land changes for each scenario, identify those areas more likely to change in the four scenarios, and analyze the sustainability of each scenario.
Provisioning ecosystem services supply and demand: The role of landscape management to reinforce supply and promote synergies with other ecosystem services
The global economy and international trade allows regions to have a higher ecosystems services demand than the services provided by their own ecosystems; this leads to a supply and demand provisioning ES scale mismatch, which may affect the provision of other ES. This study aims to identify ways to balance the supply and demand of ecosystems through sustainable land use. The study is focused on the provisioning ecosystem services in Biscay and their relationship with the ecological footprint of the area.
The study concludes that to replace the current monoculture forest plantations to a multi-functional landscape will strengthen food security and improve biodiversity and essential ecosystem services. Reducing the ecological footprint at a local scale will contribute to a reduced demand on global ecosystem services. As such, maximizing a mosaic approach to local land use will help to improve the provision of ecosystem services and therefore contribute to a reduction in the global ecological footprint.
Mapping recreation supply and demand using an ecological and a social evaluation approach.
This paper provides a framework for addressing recreation as an example of Cultural Ecosystem Services and a methodology to support landscape management based on recreation activities at a regional scale. A GIS-based approach was used to estimate and map ecological and social factors illustrating recreation supply and demand in the Basque Country (northern Spain). The proposed methodology for recreation supply was based on recreation potential and accessibility, and the social demand was determined using a convenience sample of 629 persons that reported preferences for recreation activities using photo-questionnaires.
Multiple ecosystem services landscape index: A tool for multifunctional landscapes conservation
In this study we propose a new integrative environmental indicator based on the ecosystem services provided by the landscape and named “multiple ecosystem services landscape index” (MESLI). MESLI was developed at municipality level in the Basque Country and the results demonstrated that the MESLI index is a good tool to measure landscape multifunctionality at local scales. This information about ecosystem services at the local level is usually lacking. Therefore, MESLI would be very useful for policy-makers and land managers because it provides relevant information to local scale decision-making.
Integrating stakeholders’ demands and scientific knowledge on ecosystem services in landscape planning
This paper develops an approach that integrates scientific knowledge and stakeholders’ demands to provide guidelines for landscape planning strategies while considering ecosystem services. On the one hand, a participative process was carried out to define the region’s sustainable future, considering the opportunities and constrains provided by the landscape and its ecosystems. On the other hand a space analysis (GIS) was done to study synergies and trade-offs between biodiversity and carbon storage (fact that was already identified as a knowledge gap during the participatory process). Both the special analysis and the participative process converged in the suitability of promoting natural forest ecosystems restoration in the region, due to their high contribution to biodiversity and carbon storage. This iterative learning and decision making process is already showing its effectiveness for decision making, with specific examples of how the results obtained by this integrative approach are being included.
Mapping recreation and aesthetic value of ecosystems in the Bilbao Metropolitan Greenbelt (northern Spain) to support landscape planning
This paper presents a method to quantify cultural ecosystem services and their spatial distribution in the landscape based on ecological structure and social evaluation approaches. Using a GIS-based approach and two different public participation processes three maps were obtained: a map showing the provision of recreation services, an aesthetic value map and a map of the correspondences and differences between both services. A weak spatial correlation was found between aesthetic quality and recreation provision services. A consultation with decision-makers indicated that the results were considered useful to identify areas that can be targeted for improvement of landscape and recreation management.
The relevance of local participatory scenario planning for ecosystem management policies in the Basque Country, northern Spain
This paper presents future scenarios for Biscay through 2050 as part of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment in Biscay sub-global assessment (Basque Country, northern Spain). The use of an integrated and participatory methodology by downscaling MA global scenarios allows analyzing how ecosystem services and human well-being might change in a range of plausible futures, and identifying management strategies for the territory and planning processes at local scale.
This work reflects the importance of taking into account different perspectives when dealing with ecosystem management; and also the crucial importance of involving policymakers and administration technicians in the process to gain policy impact. Thanks to it, on the recently renewed strategic policy planning for sustainability of the county this assessment is considered high priority.
Perception, demand and user contribution to ecosystem services in the Bilbao Metropolitan Greenbelt
This study, published in Journal of Environmental Management, analyses the perceptions of users regarding the benefits provided by the Bilbao Metropolitan Greenbelt and compares them to their demands for ecosystem services, in order to understand users’ preferences and better orient land use planning. The results show that the demand does not correspond to what users perceive these ecosystems to provide. The necessity to enhance people’s awareness of ecosystems’ capacity to provide social benefits is underlined, which could be useful to reorient land use planning based on ecosystem services.
Co-benefits and trade-offs between biodiversity, carbon storage and water flow regulation in the Biosphere Reserve of Urdaibai
This report shows the co-benefits and trade-offs between biodiversity, carbon storage and water flow regulation in the Biosphere Reserve of Urdaibai. The biodiversity and ecosystem services are valued, with the aim of proposing criteria for conservation plans that would include ecosystem services and biodiversity.
Use of native species to improve carbon sequestration and contribute towards solving the environmental problems of the timberlands in Biscay, northern Spain
Transformation of natural forest areas into fast-growing exotic species plantations in Biscay has negative impacts on the environment, creating the necessity to evaluate the argument that forest managers use to persist with the “pine and eucalyptus culture”, arguing that these species provide a big Carbon sequestration service and their use as bio-energy. But, is this well-founded? or, could the use of native species improve the C sequestration service in Biscay while avoiding the environmental problems the actual plantations cause? After simulating the changes in the C stock in living biomass in 3 possible scenarios, in this study we prove that changing pine and eucalyptus by native species in plantations, while solving some of the environmental problems of the actual plantations, sequesters more Carbon in the long-term.
Participatory process to prioritize actions for a sustainable management in a biosphere reserve
In this article the scientific and technical participatory process made in the Urdaibai Biosphere Reserve is discussed in order to develop the scientific and technical foundations of future PRUG from the contribution of experts in the different topics. In addition, the actions proposed in it and the impact that their realization would have are analyzed.
Can understorey native woodland plant species regenerate under exotic pine plantations using natural succession?
In this article the natural regeneration of oak is analyzed under the cover of pine in Bizkaia (Basque Country). Composition and plant diversity in three areas are compared: Regenerating oak, old oak and pine plantations adjacent to these oak. It is noted that natural regeneration under the cover of pine occurs in older pine plantations.
Sustainable Development, Ecological Complexity and Environmental Values
This Current Research series book on Sustainability contains a chapter that studies The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) from the Basque Country. The MA is a United Nations International and multidisciplinary Program that shows the relationships between nature and Human Well-Being. In the MA Follow up Context, this chapter analyses MA´s relevance in Northern Societies and presents the Biscay (Basque Country, Northern Spain) SGA case study.
Uncovering Ecosystem Service Bundles through Social Preferences
Ecosystem service assessments have increasingly been used to support environmental management policies, mainly based on biophysical and economic indicators. However, few studies have coped with the social-cultural dimension of ecosystem services. In this article, published in PLOS-ONE, social preferences toward ecosystem services are analyzed. Through face-to-face questionnaires made in eight different case study sites (Green Belt of Bilbao included) from 2007 to 2011, it was found that 90.5% of the sampled population recognized the ecosystem’s capacity to deliver services. Formal studies, environmental behavior and gender variables influenced the probability of people recognizing the ecosystem’s capacity to provide services. The ecosystem services most frequently perceived by people were regulating services; of those, air purification held the greatest importance. We conclude that socio-cultural study the preferences toward ecosystem services can serve as a tool to identify relevant services for people, the factors underlying these social preferences, and emerging ecosystem service bundles and trade-offs.
Does forest fragmentation affect the same way all growth-forms?
Fragmentation of natural habitats is one of the main causes of the loss of biodiversity. However, all plants do not respond to habitat fragmentation in the same way due to differences in species traits. We studied the effect of patch size and isolation on the biodiversity of vegetation in the mixed-oak forests in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. The aim was to evaluate whether all the growth-forms of vegetation are equally affected by forest fragmentation in order to improve the management strategies to restore this type of vegetation. This study has shown that the effect of the area and spatial isolation of the patches was not the same for the different growth-forms. Fragmentation had a mainly negative effect on the richness and diversity of forest specialist species, especially ferns and herbaceous growth-forms. Thus, in this region special attention should be paid to the conservation of forest specialist species, especially ferns and herbs, for which conservation of large forest areas should be promoted.
At which spatial scale are plant species composition and diversity affected in beech forests?
This article discusses the environmental factors and landscape heterogeneity affecting the plant composition and plant diversity in the beech forests of the Basque Country, and is analyzed how they affect to various life forms. It is noted that the plant composition and plant diversity responda primarily to landscape heterogeneity that there are around the beech and secondly to soil pH.
Efficacy of Management Policies on Protection and Recovery of Natural Ecosystems in the Urdaibai Biosphere Reserve
Knowledge of landscape patterns and dynamics is essential for land use planners and natural resources managers. They need to know how landscapes have changed in order to determine the consequences and efficacy of the management policies and implement future decision-making. This study characterized the landscape of the Urdaibai Biosphere Reserve, which has been affected by the introduction of exotic tree species since the beginning of the 20th century. We examined the dynamics of this landscape between 1991 and 2009 and the consequences of having been declared a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 1984. Despite the small change described, the first effects of conservation and environmental recovery policies can be detected. Nevertheless, there remains much to be done for recovering the natural ecosystem; the most difficult obstacles include the fact that most of the land is privately owned and an existence of the administrative complexity.
Potential use of pine plantations to restore natural forests in a highly fragmented basin
In forests, the substitution of broadleaf species by conifers can reduce biodiversity because coniferous forests generally provide less diverse vascular understories than broadleaf forests. However, in some cases, former pine plantations might be useful for restoring native forests. We compared plant species composition on the plot scale in natural beech and mixed oak forests with that in plantations of Pinus radiata. Links between plant diversity and landscape parameters (patch size, fractal dimension and distance to the nearest patch of the same type) were investigated. The objective of this study was to evaluate the use of pine plantations for restoring native diversity in a zone where native forests are very fragmented. Similar to oak forests, plant diversity in pine plantations was high, mainly due to the presence of generalist species. Some species characteristic of oak forests also appeared in pine plantations, suggesting the onset of natural forest regeneration. These results suggest that pine plantations could be used to promote natural regeneration of original oak forests. Moreover, residual native stands should be conserved as important sources of native species and their seeds.
Relationship between vegetation diversity and soil functional diversity in native mixed-oak forests
In the current study, we investigated the relationship between forest vegetation diversity and soil functional diversity (calculated from the activity of soil enzymes) in naturally developed plant communities of native mixed-oak forests without imposing any disturbances to already existing plant–soil relationships. In order to do so, five different vegetation types, i.e., herbaceous plants, climbing plants, trees, shrubs, and ferns, were considered. Correlations between plant diversity, soil physicochemical properties, and soil enzyme activities were determined. Herbaceous plants and ferns showed a strong positive correlation between Shannon’s plant diversity and soil functional diversity. Furthermore, herbaceous plants showed a strong positive correlation between species richness and soil functional diversity. Although these correlations between plant diversity and soil functional diversity might possibly be due to the fact that higher values of plant richness and diversity result in a greater habitat heterogeneity in the soil, current knowledge on the topic is mixed and very incomplete and, then, one must be extremely cautious when interpreting such correlations.